Style Guide for TOS
If you’ve not read the Writer’s Guidelines for TOS, please read that document before continuing here.
Articles, queries, and other documents submitted to TOS should be prepared according to the following style guidelines. For all matters not addressed below, please follow The Chicago Manual of Style, 16th Edition (certain variations are outlined below) and Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition. For writing and editing in TOS, these editions supersede later editions.
Submitting Documents
Queries and manuscripts should be shared as Google Docs, in 14-point standard Serif font, with thomas@theobjectivestandard.com. If you prefer, you may draft the document in Microsoft Word and upload it to Google Docs. Copying and pasting is not recommended, as this generally causes formatting issues. We aim to reply within a day or two, but sometimes we take longer. Please note that if a query or manuscript patently contradicts our philosophy or grossly disregards our writer’s guidelines or style guide, we will not reply at all.
Author Information and Theme
At the top of each submission, list your name, email address, and phone number (include international dialing code if outside the U.S.).
For articles longer than 1,000 words, also include at the top a grammatically correct one-sentence theme that succinctly captures the main point of the article (the subject of the theme sentence should also be the subject of the article). In the case of a book, movie, or similar review, state the general nature of the work and your general evaluation of it (positive, negative, or mixed).
Formatting
Name documents according to the following format: fl-subject, where “fl” stands for the author’s first and last initials (e.g., cb-morality).
Use 14-point serif font for all text except headers, which may have header formatting applied.
Leave all text flush left. Do not center any text. Do not justify any text.
Single space all material, and double space between paragraphs.
Do not indent the first line of any paragraph.
Make sure there is no more than one space between words and sentences, and make sure there are no trailing (extra) spaces at the ends of paragraphs.
Use footnotes, not endnotes. (Footnotes will be converted to endnotes for the print journal.) Footnotes should be numbered using Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.).
Format headers using standard web copy formatting. Header 1 formatting should be used only for the title of the article. Header 2 formatting should be used for logically subordinate sections of the article, and header 3 formatting, if used, should appear only subordinate to header 2 formatting. Do not use headers smaller than 3.
Submit any necessary images, graphics, or charts separately via email.
Editing and Tracking
When a draft is delivered to TOS, it should be in the author’s best form—that is, at a point where he believes he could not reasonably improve its clarity, concision, and accuracy further. The editing process varies from writer to writer and piece to piece; our editors work with each writer as necessary. Following review by TOS editors, authors should make all revisions with Google Docs’ “suggestion mode” or Word’s “track changes” feature turned on.
Accuracy of Names, Titles, Figures, Quotations, and Citations
Double-check all claims, names, titles, figures, quotations, and citations; their accuracy is your responsibility.
Block Quotes
Place quotes of 50 words or more in block-quote format by indenting the left and right margins 0.5” each.
Footnotes
Generally, footnotes should be used only for citations and references. However, in some cases, it is appropriate to use explanatory footnotes to further elaborate on ideas that are important enough to mention but not important enough to warrant placement in the body text. Our editors have final discretion in this matter.
There are so many variables and options involved in the formatting of footnotes (Chicago Manual has more than 150 pages on the subject) that the best way to convey the general style of TOS in this respect is with a set of examples. The following should answer most questions that might arise. If you have questions that are not addressed here, see the Chicago Manual or contact TOS.
Leonard Peikoff, Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand (New York: Dutton, 1991), 213–14.
Peikoff, Objectivism, 10.
The Philosophical Works of Descartes, translated by Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (London: Cambridge University Press, 1973), 1, 253.
Peikoff, Objectivism, 276.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr. et al., Hard Sayings of the Bible (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 127.
Thomas Friedman, “Arabs at the Crossroads,” New York Times, July 3, 2002, A19.
Julia Annas, “Virtue and Eudaimonism,” Social Philosophy and Policy 15, no. 1 (Winter 1998): 38–39.
Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, translated by Norman Kemp Smith (New York: St. Martin’s, 1929), 22–25.
Louis P. Pojman, Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong, 3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1999), 78.
Aristotle, “Metaphysics,” in The Basic Works of Aristotle, edited by Richard McKeon (New York: Random House, 1941), 736–37.
Paul McHugh, “Annihilating Terri Schiavo,” Commentary 119, no. 6 (June 2005): 31–32.
Lee Siegel, “Reality in America,” New Republic, June 23, 2003, 26–27.
Philosophical Works of Descartes, 257.
Cf. Ayn Rand, Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (New York: Signet, 1967), 19.
Matt Patterson and Trey Kovacs, “Cut Spending: Permanently Furlough ‘Official Time’ Workers,” Washington Times, February 28, 2013, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/feb/28/patterson-and-kovacs-cut-spending-permanently-furl.
Ari Armstrong, “Steve Simpson on Continuing Threats to Corporate Free Speech,” The Objective Standard 7, no. 2 (Summer 2012), http://www.theobjectivestandard.com/issues/2012-summer/steve-simpson.asp.
Howard Roerig, “Scientists Generate Electricity from Coal without Burning It,” TOS Blog, February 27, 2013, http://www.theobjectivestandard.com/blog/index.php/2013/02/scientists-generate-electricity-from-coal-without-burning-it.
Sue Schuurman, “Skeletons in the Closet: 17 Years Ago This Week,” Hostages Recount Events, http://www.rescueattempt.com/id10.html (accessed September 9, 2014).
Ryan Holiday, Facebook, April 29, 2025, https://www.facebook.com/reel/708161194942664.
A few things to note by way of the above examples:
Do not use ibid., op. cit., loc. cit., or idem. Instead, use the author’s last name (if applicable), the short title, and the page number(s) (see examples 2, 4, and 13).
Cf. (which means “confer” or “compare”) is acceptable when appropriate (see example 14).
Print volume numbers in Arabic (1, 2, 3), not Roman (I, II, III) numerals, even if they are Roman numerals in the original publication (see example 3).
If a book or an article has more than three authors, use the first author’s name followed by et al. (see example 5).
If the title of a newspaper begins with “The,” always omit the article (see example 6). If the title of a book begins with “The,” include the article in the first reference and omit it in later references (see examples 3, 10, and 13).
Spell out “translated” and “edited”; do not abbreviate them (see examples 3, 8, and 10).
Abbreviate “edition,” “number,” “section,” and “volume” (see examples 3, 7, 9, and 11).
Represent a publication as it represents itself. For example: Salon and Breitbart. For TV news stations and the Associated Press, do not use italics (e.g., Fox News, CBS).
Include the URL of a citation wherever available. If no publication date is available for an internet publication, include a parenthetical note after the URL with the “accessed” date.
Do not break URLs, even if they break badly within the Word document (see example 15). This will be fixed during the layout process.
Regarding note reference numbers:
Place note reference numbers at the end of phrases or sentences, following the closing punctuation mark, not mid-sentence or mid-phrase. For example:
Correct: The first Space Shuttle to fly in space was Columbia, which launched in 1981.1
Incorrect: The first Space Shuttle to fly in space was Columbia, which launched in 19811.
Incorrect: The first Space Shuttle to fly in space was Columbia,1 which launched in 1981.
Do not put multiple numbers in the same location. Instead, use a single number and combine the citations in a single footnote, separated by semicolons.
Citations in Book Reviews and Review Essays
Do not use footnotes in book reviews and review essays when referencing the book you are reviewing; instead, use parenthetical notation for the page number. For example:
He proceeds to examine the many different ways in which blacks fought against discrimination and oppression: from the intransigent, confrontational approach of Ida B. Wells, who campaigned against lynching in the 1890s; to the accommodation of Booker T. Washington, whose emphasis on black self-improvement over confrontation is characterized by Fairclough as “a tactical retreat in order to prepare the way for a strategic advance” (63); to the separatism of Marcus Garvey, who proposed that blacks fight for an independent, united Africa (126).
Use page numbers for the hardcover version if available; otherwise, use page numbers for the paperback. If only Kindle locations are available, use formatting following this model: “(loc. 375).”
Review Header Formatting
For reviews of books, include the pricing and page count for the hardcover if available, otherwise for the paperback, otherwise for the Kindle edition. For reviews of books and films, include information about the work as illustrated by the following examples:
Alexander Hamilton
by Ron Chernow
New York: Penguin Press, 2004.
818 pp. $35 (hardcover).
Reviewed by Daniel Wahl
Act of Valor
Directed by Mike McCoy and Scott Waugh
Written by Kurt Johnstad
Starring Alex Veadov, Roselyn Sanchez, Nestor Serrano, and Emilio Rivera
Released by Relativity Media, 2012
Rated R for strong violence, including some torture, and for language
Running time: 101 minutes
Reviewed by Andrew Bernstein
Inclusive Numbers
For inclusive numbers, follow these guidelines:
1–100: use all digits.
If the first number given in the range is 100 or a multiple of 100, use all digits. Examples: 100–104, 600–604, 1100–1123.
If the first number given in the range is greater than 100 and the range is within the same multiple of 100, use the changed part only: 107–8, 505–17, 1002–6.
In addition to the foregoing, use more than two digits if necessary: 321–25, 415–532, 1536–38, 1496–504.
Roman numerals are given in full.
Inclusive number ranges always use an en-dash, not an em-dash or hyphen.
Number Formatting
Spell out numbers from one through one hundred, round numbers (four hundred, five thousand), and any number beginning a sentence. However, use figures for dates (19th century; September 11, 2001), measurements (4 grams; 9 feet), and percentages (15 percent). Also, where numbers cluster, alternate consistently if necessary for readability (“The school has 9 fourth graders, 12 fifth graders, and 100 sixth graders”). For other exceptions and special cases, consult the Chicago Manual.
Acknowledgments
If you include acknowledgments, place them at the end of the article. We will edit them into the footnotes section for publication.
Ellipses
When omitting words in the middle of a sentence, use three periods with spaces between and on either side of them. For example, “John bought chocolate and strawberry ice cream” becomes “John bought . . . ice cream.”
When omitting words on either side of a comma, include the comma on the appropriate side of the ellipses. For example, “John bought ice cream with chocolate chips and strawberries, then he ate it” becomes “John bought ice cream . . . , then he ate it.”
When omitting words at the end of a sentence, use a period after the final word with three additional periods with spaces between them and on either side of them. For example: “John bought ice cream, then ate it” becomes “John bought ice cream. . . .”
Punctuation with Quote Marks
Punctuation can appear inside or outside quotation marks depending on the structure of the sentence; see the Chicago Manual for detailed guidance. Use question marks as illustrated by the following examples:
“Do you want to go to the grocery store?”
Mary asked, “Do you want to go to the grocery store?”
Did he call that dumpy fruit stand a “grocery store”?
The principle at work here is that the question mark is included within the quotation marks only when the material inside the quotation marks is a question.
En Dash (–)
Use en dashes where appropriate. An en dash (which is half the length of an em dash and about twice the length of a hyphen) means “through” or “to.” En dashes (not hyphens) are used to connect continuing or inclusive numbers, such as dates, times, and reference numbers (1861–65, not 1861-65; 6:30–8:00, not 6:30-8:00; 64–66, not 64-66).
A typical PC keyboard produces an en dash by holding “alt” and typing 0150. A Mac produces an en dash via pressing the option and hyphen keys simultaneously.
Initials of People’s Names
If a person is not widely known, use periods and spaces between the initials of his name (H. W. B. Joseph). But if he is widely known—and known by his initials—use only the initials with no periods or spaces between them (FDR, JFK, JP Morgan, etc.).
Italics
Use italics (not underlining or bold) to indicate emphasis.
Use italics to indicate the title of a book, newspaper or journal, play, movie, television show, video game, painting, sculpture, or symphony. Enclose roman text in quotation marks to indicate the title of an article or a poem, an episode of a television show, or a short musical work.
Citing and Referencing The Objective Standard
When citing or referencing our print journal, The Objective Standard, include the “The” and use italics. When using the abbreviation TOS to refer to the print journal, use italics.
When using “The Objective Standard” or “TOS” to refer to the business, rather than the print journal, do not use italics. When citing or referencing TOS content that does not appear in any issue of the journal, do not use italics.
Serial Comma
Use the serial comma (e.g., “egoism, individual rights, and laissez-faire capitalism,” not “egoism, individual rights and laissez-faire capitalism”)—except when quoting someone who did not use it.
Letter Case following a Colon
If the material following a colon is an independent clause/sentence, then the first letter should be uppercase; if not, then it should be lowercase. For example:
So, the crucial question in the realm of politics is: What can stop an individual from acting on his rational judgment? There is only one thing that can stop an individual from acting on his judgment: other people. And there is only one means by which they can do it: physical force.
Active Voice/Passive Voice
Use active voice except (a) when the agent of the action is unknown or irrelevant to the point being made, or (b) when passive voice serves a specific purpose, such as to emphasize the object over the agent.
“Antitrust laws violate individual rights” is stronger and more concise than “Individual rights are violated by antitrust laws.”
“Thomas Edison invented the lightbulb” emphasizes Edison; “The lightbulb was invented by Thomas Edison” emphasizes the lightbulb.
Personal Pronouns
When referring to an individual whose name and sex are not known (including in hypothetical examples), use the singular male pronoun “he” (which is gender-neutral in such cases) or the singular impersonal pronoun “one” consistently throughout. Do not use the plural pronoun “they” to refer to a single individual and do not use “he or she.” If you are referring to multiple hypothetical individuals in a single example, use “she” to differentiate the second individual from the first. Also use “she” when the context suggests that the individual in question is female.
Example: “The reader will get the wrong impression if he reads it this way” or “If a woman tries to apply, she will find the process different.”
When deciding whether to use “he” or “she,” TOS defaults to the pronoun corresponding to biological sex. In cases where a public figure has undergone a “sex change” operation, we may consider using the new pronoun for clarity on a case-by-case basis.
While/Although/Whereas
Use “while” in its temporal (“at the same time”) sense only; use “although” in the sense of “even though” or “despite the fact that”; and use “whereas” in the sense of “inasmuch as” or “in contrast to the fact that.” For example:
While Kepler was developing his theories, Galileo was perfecting the telescope. Although Kepler developed his theories without the benefit of a telescope, the new technology would help him greatly in formulating his three laws. Whereas Galileo would be forced to repent his claims that there were multiple bodies orbiting Jupiter, Kepler was free to verify and support that discovery.
Since/Because
Use “since” in its temporal sense only; use “because” in the sense of “for the reason that” or to identify a causal connection. For example:
Since the so-called Progressive era, the quality of American education has steadily declined. Because “progressive education” treats feelings as superior to facts and “social gain” as more important than “the acquirement of mere learning,” it is greatly destructive to the lives of those raised under it.
Which/That
Use “which”—preceded by a comma—for nonrestrictive clauses; use “that”—not preceded by a comma—for restrictive clauses. For example:
The morality of altruism, which has no basis in reason, is prevalent today.
The morality that calls on people to sacrifice for others is altruism.
Like/Such As
Use “like” to mean “similar to”; use “such as” to mean “for example.” For instance:
If we eliminated antitrust laws, we would unleash producers like John D. Rockefeller. (Not: If we eliminated antitrust laws, we would unleash producers such as John D. Rockefeller.)
We should eliminate rights-violating laws, such as antitrust laws. (Not: We should eliminate rights-violating laws, like antitrust laws.)
Name and Word Spellings
Spell the digital book “ebook,” not “e-book.”
Use “email,” not “e-mail.”
Use “antitrust,” not “anti-trust.”
Spell the name of Islamic prophet “Muhammad.”
Spell the name of the religious text “Koran.”
Use “homeschool” rather than “home school.”
Don’t capitalize “sharia” (unless it begins a sentence).
Use “3D” rather than “3-D.”
Do not use periods with the following abbreviations: PhD, MA, BA, MD, DC, UK.
Capitalize “West” when discussing the Western world.
Use “nonetheless” rather than “nevertheless.”
Submissions should be written in U.S. English. For example, use “realize” not “realise,” “center” not “centre,” “aluminum” not “aluminium,” and such (unless directly quoting another writer). If in doubt, consult Merriam-Webster for the correct U.S. English spelling and set your spell checker to English (United States) or set your Google Docs locale to American English.
Miscellaneous
In titles, use double quotes (not single quotes).
Use “more than” (not “over”) to indicate “greater in quantity than” (e.g., “more than one thousand pieces” (not “over one thousand pieces”).
Use “that is” and “for example” and “etcetera” in the text (use “i.e.” and “e.g.” and “etc.” in parentheses only). And “i.e.” and “e.g.” are always followed by a comma, except in the context of this explanation.
Do not use superscript in numbers (not “19th century” but “19th century”).
Subscripts are used only when they are part of a specific mathematical, chemical, or similar nomenclature (e.g., CO2, not CO2).
Dates should not include the “th” as a suffix—e.g., use “May 9” rather than “May 9th.”
To use apostrophes to show possession with a name or word ending in “s,” add an apostrophe and an s. For example, use “Aquinas’s ideas.”
Use an em dash (—) where appropriate, without spaces on either side, not double hyphens.
To abbreviate “United States,” always use “U.S.” Use the abbreviated form only when it serves as an adjective, as in “U.S. military.” Otherwise, spell it out.
When citing a TOS Winter article, use the abbreviated year—e.g., (TOS Winter 2012–13).
In biblical citations, do not include spaces between the colon and the numbers that follow. So: Acts 22:27–29; not Acts 22: 27–29.
Capitalize the names of celestial bodies such as the Sun, Earth, and Moon (these are serving as the proper names of specific objects). Earth should only be lower case when used as a synonym for “dirt” or “ground.” Only use lowercase when referring to a general class of bodies, such as “a moon” or “the planet’s sun.” Celestial bodies with proper names (Jupiter, Betelgeuse, Kepler-22b) are capitalized when referred to by those names.